Faced with this dilemma, philosophers proposed two basic solutions:

• Perhaps, some suggested, the essence of "human-ness" lies in some unseen dimension of reality. The view that concepts are intrinsic in reality was espoused in particular by Plato, who held that the human beings of whom we have direct experience are but imperfect representatives of the ideal "man." Since (according to this view) the ideal does not appear in the reality we normally experience, it must be known by some form of intuition or mystical revelation.

• Perhaps, others proposed, the concept "human" is just an arbitrary grouping we invent in our minds. This subjectivist view has been most prevalent since Kant and is particularly clearly reflected in the current academic fad of "deconstructionism."

These views are applied not only to the concept "human," but also to much more complex concepts. Indeed, beliefs about issues such as ethics and politics rest on conceptual foundations that may reflect intrinsicist or subjectivist assumptions. For example, examining contemporary American politics in Section 5, we shall find that so-called "liberal" and "conservative" viewpoints stem primarily from subjectivism and intrinsicism respectively.

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