• Fraud—that is, the acquisition of another person's higher subjective value X in exchange for a lower value or a non-value Y by deceiving that person as to the basic nature of Y—is a subspecies of force. For instance, suppose that Friday offers Crusoe a basket of coconuts in exchange for a tree house, and Crusoe then discovers that the basket was filled with worthless stones. Friday's deception deprives Crusoe of a higher subjective value (the tree house) for a non-value (the stones) on his personal value scale. Such action is therefore equivalent to any other form of praxeological force and is barred from a free market.

• The extortion of a value by the threat of force is itself a form of force, since it directly interferes with another person's maximization of value. In our imaginary free-market society, for instance, Friday cannot obtain coconuts from Crusoe by threatening to set fire to his tree house.     

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